Brigit, the Bright One Pic: Hanging Gardens

We’re proud to bring another post by Guest Blogger, Ishtar from the Hanging Gardens of Babylon blog and Ishtar’s Gate  about the ancient Celtic Goddess Brigit, Brighid or Bride. As Imbolc/Imbolg, the 2nd of February – which is the Fire Festival associated with her – is rapidly approaching, this is an especially relevant post! Thank you, Ishtar Ever wonder where the word ‘Britain’ comes from? It originated with Brigit of the Fae, whose name the Romans, for reasons best known to themselves, combined with that of another indigenous spirit, Ana, to create Britannia. They changed her sun disc into a shield and her wand into a sword, and thus almost managed to emasculate the true spirit of these isles.

I say ‘almost’ because they didn’t succeed. The spirit of Brigit is beginning to burn bright again as more and more people search to uncover their spiritual roots. In fact, Brigit is the key to one of the most ancient initiations into the Underworld going back many thousands of years … but more about that later.

I only mention it now in order to signal that although I will be explaining the origins of Brigit, and going into some of the ancient customs associated with her, this is not going to be one of those dry, dusty, fusty essays about folklore that don’t lead anywhere. I leave all that to the folk historians. I’m not the least bit interested in folk songs or Morris dancing or corn dollies or May poles unless I can trace the magical, transformative seed underneath — the catalytic spark that creates change through magical or shamanic initiation. There is a very good reason for all that Morris dancing and singing of ballads, but that’s the bit most folk historians leave out.

However, I won’t let you down… so let’s get moving…

First of all, who was Brigit? And where does she come from?

Etymology of her name

The name Brigit means Fiery Arrow or Bright One, which is another name for Lucifer (for more about this, see Lucifer, the Fae and Initiation into the Underworld and also Why Lucifer Must Have Been a Woman). Her oldest name is Briganti, which could be derived from the ancient Indo European Bhrghnti (or in Sanskrit Brihati), which means ‘exalted one.’

The Celts shared many sacred ritual practises with the ancient Vedic Indians. They migrated from across and through the Himalayan region after the last Ice Age, eventually arriving in Europe. The Brigantes were among them. Before becoming the largest Celtic tribe in the British Isles, the Brigantes had settled in Austria near Lake Constance in a place known as Bregenz.They had fire priests known as bhrisingrs after the bhrigus or fire priests of the Anu tribes.

Bridestones Pic: Hanging Gardens

Brittany in northern France was also named for Brigit, and she was also the inspiration for Brechin in Scotland, the river Brent in England, the river Braint in Wales, and Bridewell ~ both in London and in Ireland. The city of Bristol takes its name from Brigit. And Brenin, the Welsh word for King, meant consort of Brigantia.

(There’s probably loads more Brigit-inspired locations, and so if you know of one, please do add it in the comments.)

Brigit in mythology

In Celtic mythology, Brigit appears as one of the offspring of the Dagda and the Morrigen, (about whom you can read more in The Underworld Initiation of King Arthur by Morgan the Fae.) She was part of the Tuatha da Danaan, which is another name for the Sidhe, the Fae, the Little People or the Gentry.

Brigit was known as the patron spirit of healers, smiths and bards, and she rules the elements of fire and water. Brigid’s Feast Day is on Imbolc in February, which the Christians call Candlemass. On Imbolc, milk products are offered to her as the young Bride. Butter, cheese and milk are put out for her. People say that Bride herself is abroad on Imbolc Eve. So they leave out pieces of cloth for her to bless as she passes, and which are used later in healings.

One of her symbols is the serpent entwined around a white wand, predating Asclepius. Other important animals associated with Brigit are the white swan, the white wolf and the white cow.

Post Christian Brigit

Brigit, the Bright One Pic: Hanging Gardens

The Romans Christians, as was their wont, found a way to amalgamate Brigit into the Christian religion by adding her to their pantheon of saints. Her centre was at Kildare in Ireland.“Cill Dare” means “Church of the Oak”, thus betraying its Druid past, and it was in an area known as Civitas Brigitae, “The City of Brigid”.Brigit is found in the carving below within a wall of what remains of the St Michael church on top of Glastonbury Tor, milking a cow.

In this way, even within the Christian pantheon, she retains her association with her primary totem animal.

Brigit milking a cow
pic: Hanging Gardens

Because Celtic Christianity retained many of the indigenous spiritual practises, Brigit’s fire was kept alight day and night at the Kildare convent, by dedicated vestal priestesses, for centuries — until they were finally put out by Henry VIII’s shock troops of the Reformation.

The Way of Brigit

I’ve been getting to know the kind and gentle spirit of Brigit in recent times, and have been honoured to receive her initiation. She has taught me to follow her in an ancient route through the Underworld which, although well-trodden, is not so well used today, since the advent of the Western Mystery Tradition with its pathworking up the Kabbalah or Qabalah.

This way in which Brigit guided me is a much more ancient route. It bypasses the Abyss of the Kabbalah, with all its perils and pitfalls, by travelling underneath it. The Way of Brigit is part of a magical working known as The Mask of the Bright One, and it has also been called The Harrowing*.

Now that Brigit has taken me through this initiation, I’m ready and able to help any of those who feel that it’s the right time for them to receive it.

The Way of Brigit is for those who wish to quicken their progress in terms of self-transformation but also with regard to their relationship with the Land. It is about healing our place in the Land, and about how we stand in relation to all the other creatures on the planet. It is about breathing at One with All That Is, and taking back the reins of our own power as the glorious Beings which we truly are. It will also afford you the protection and guidance of Brigit and the Fae.

So if you feel ready for this next step on your path, do let me know.

* I’m grateful to R.J. Stewart for providing some of the material for this journey.

Further Reading: You can find reviews and books to buy on the Fae in the Faerie Tradition section of the Ishtar’s Gate Library.

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You can also now download a Celtic Myth Podshow App from the iTunes store. This is the most convenient and reliable way to access the Celtic Myth Podshow on your iPhone or iPod Touch. You’re always connected to the latest episode, and our App users have access to exclusive bonus content, just touch and play! To find out more visit the iTunes Store or our Description Page.
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The Mound of Hostages Pic: Dunechaser

The Irish people have just undertaken a survey whose results were released to coincide with National Heritage week. The results are somewhat surprising. Chief among the Irish heritage locations and landmarks respondents were most embarrassed at not having yet visited was the Hill of Tara. Listeners to our stories know how central and important the Hill of Tara is to the Heritage of the Irish Celts. The three most important sites voted for were Newgrange, the Burren and Glendalough in Co. Wicklow.

The Irish Times

The Irish Times – Friday, August 26, 2011, reported:

The three most popular heritage sites are Newgrange Co Meath, the Burren in Co Clare and Glendalough in Co Wicklow.
That is according to a new survey released to coincide with National Heritage week.
However, while 450 of the 600 people interviewed claimed heritage was important for tourism, many respondents expressed some shame at not having visited popular sites.
Chief among the Irish heritage locations and landmarks respondents were most embarrassed at not having yet visited was the Hill of Tara. In second place was the Rock of Cashel and in third position came Newgrange.

When asked to choose the heritage property that most closely depicts Ireland’s history, participants chose round towers and monastic locations as the structure most in fitting with Ireland’s rich historical past. Ancient settlement sites ran a close second.
However, more than one-third of respondents (37 per cent) were unable to say whether sufficient efforts were being made to protect sites and properties.
Almost the same percentage of respondents believed more could be done (36.8 per cent) to preserve our properties. Meanwhile, the remainder, 26.2 per cent, believed that enough was being done to maintain heritage landmarks. In order of historical importance as deemed by respondents, the GPO was the only 20th century site mentioned, and came in in second place. Newgrange was top.
The survey was commissioned by Keane public relations, acting for the Ecclesiastical insurance company to mark heritage week. Ecclesiastical donates a significant proportion of its profits to charity.
http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0826/1224303005266.html

The Irish Examiner

Fergus Black, in the Irish Examiner, repiorted that:

IT is 5,000 years old, famously sees the light once every year, and has now been voted Ireland’s top heritage site and most important historical landmark. The Neolithic passage tomb in Newgrange — lit up by the winter solstice sunrise in December — has been crowned the nation’s favourite, knocking the iconic GPO in Dublin and the Burren in Co Clare off the top spots for the most historically important and favourite heritage site in the country.

The Entrance at Newgrange Pic: Kevin Lawver

Yet despite its ‘top of the spots’ popularity, almost one in ten people say the Meath attraction is the one that they are most embarrassed to admit having not yet visited.
Kerry is also given the thumbs up, topping the public’s preference as the most scenic county with just one eastern county, Wicklow, featuring among the country’s top six county beauty spots.
The findings are revealed in a nationwide survey which shows that three out of four people believe our heritage is vital to Irish tourism. More than 600 adults were polled as part of a nationwide survey by the Ecclesiastical insurance company to assess the public’s views on Irish heritage. Up to last week, the most up- to-date figures show there were more than 157,000 visitors to Newgrange, its visitor centre and to the nearby megalithic site of Knowth.
The Office of Public Works which manages Newgrange and other heritage sites said that last year’s ash cloud disruption had adversely affected visitor numbers across many attractions but this year’s figures were well up and had been boosted by the “free first Wednesday” initiative at many of its sites.
According to the survey, Newgrange headed the top 10 list as Ireland’s favourite heritage site ahead of the Burren, Glendalough and the Cliffs of Moher. It was also voted number one favourite heritage structure over such landmarks as the Rock of Cashel, — visited by Queen Elizabeth during her recent trip — Dublin Castle, Trinity College and the GPO.
Embarrassed
And it came out on top again in the favourite historical site category, beating the GPO and Hill of Tara.
Despite its apparent popularity however, Newgrange is ranked third of the top ten Irish heritage sites and landmarks people are most embarrassed at having not yet visited.
The Hill of Tara tops the list with one in eight of those surveyed saying they were most embarrassed about not having visited it yet, followed by the Rock of Cashel (9.93pc) and Newgrange (9.30pc).
While almost three in every four people believe heritage is critically important to Irish tourism, the survey also revealed that more than a third were not satisfied with the level of work being done to preserve heritage sites and a similar number were unaware of the work being done to preserve them.
Irish Independent

Read more:

http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/newgrange-tops-heritage-site-poll-165466.html#ixzz1W7TOn3qU

http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/newgrange-tops-heritage-site-poll-165466.html

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You can also now download a Celtic Myth Podshow App from the iTunes store. This is the most convenient and reliable way to access the Celtic Myth Podshow on your iPhone or iPod Touch. You’re always connected to the latest episode, and our App users have access to exclusive bonus content, just touch and play! To find out more visit the iTunes Store or our Descripition Page.
You can now also find an Android version of the App which works identically to the iPhone version. You can find it on Appbrain at http://www.appbrain.com/app/celtic-myth-show/tv.wizzard.android.celticmythpodshow841 or by using the QR code opposite.
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Philo-Celtic Hound Pic: Irish Tribes

Thanks to the Irish Tribes website, specialists in Irish Genealogy, for this article exploring the importance of Genealogy to the Ancient Irish Celt and its’ relationship to the Brehon Law. They begin with:- No doubt you have friends who descend from the Laighin, or the Dál Riata, the Eoghanachta, the Corcu Laoidhe, the Seven Laois (part of the Cruithne), etc., etc., etc.  Maybe you’ve heard of “Guinness”, a drink made by the Mag Aonghusa family who descend from the Uí Eachach Cobha, who descend from the Dál nAraide, another part of the Cruithne.

The Tuath – People or ‘Tribe’

Each one of these tribes had rights and privileges which they earned during the early history of the Gaeil in Ireland, Scotland, or Man. I descend from the Cinéal Chonaill on my father’s side and from the Cinéal nAeda on my mother’s side. Here are examples of my ancestors’ rights and privileges according to Féineachas, called ‘Brehon Law’ in English.

On my father’s side:

Twenty rings, twenty sets of chess, and twenty horses to the king of Cenél Conaill (from the King of Tara) and one month’s refection from the king of Cenél Conaill to him (to the King of Tara), as he escorts him into Tír nEógain. (1)

On my mother’s side:

Ua Briúin and Síl Muiredaig and Uí Fiachrach and Cenél nAeda are free tuatha and of equal status with the king (i.e., the King of the Kingdom of Connacht), and they go not on an expedition or a muster save for a payment of cattle, and they go not into battle with the king save for pay; and if any such are brought and they happen to be killed, their king is entitled to their eric from the king (of the Kingdom of Connacht). (2)

In other words, each one of you had sets of rights and privileges under Féineachas in Ireland, Scotland, or Man, and those different sets of rights and privileges depended upon your membership in a tribe. Genealogy was the way to demonstrate and claim your tribe’s rights and privileges for yourself, your family, and your descendants.

Lóg n-Enech – ‘Price of Face’ or ‘Honor-Price’

Let’s imagine that my ‘honor-price’ (i.e., my status in society) is measured as six cows, and your honor-price is eight cows. If you should go to a court of law against me, you would win because under Féineachas your sworn word is better (i.e., more believable) than my sworn word because your honor-price is greater than my honor-price. (3)

Now imagine that you kill me. You have to pay six cows to my extended family “in éiric” (i.e., in compensation) or my extended family would have the right to kill you. (4)

My honor-price depended in large part upon my personal genealogy. For example, if I were a bó-aire or free husbandman (these were typically engaged in raising cattle), and if I assembled enough wealth to support clients, I wouldn’t have the right to claim the title of ‘lord’, and my son wouldn’t have the right to claim that title even if he also had clients, but my grandson would be a lord if he also had clients as I had and my son had. (5)

In other words, the Gaeil could step up (or down) in society every three generations.

Now imagine I don’t have an honor-price because I don’t know my genealogy. If you kill me, you don’t have to pay an éiric because I don’t have an honor-price, and my family can’t kill you because I don’t have any family.

Without genealogy, I wouldn’t have the normal protections of Gaelic society. (6)

Summary

As we see, our rights and privileges depended upon the deeds of our tribes in the early history of Ireland,  Scotland, or Man. Our honor-prices also depended upon our personal genealogies. The combined, interwoven, traditions of history, genealogy, and Brehon Law were called “Seanchas”, and Seanchas provided the entire framework of Gaelic society.

Those are some of the primary reasons why genealogy was so important. And like any tradition of such importance, it’s been difficult to break the habit.

_____________________

1. http://celt.ucc.ie/published/G102900/index.html
http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T102900/index.html, p. 4, líne 35:
2. http://celt.ucc.ie/published/G102900/index.html
http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T102900/index.html, p. 48, líne 686
3. Kelly, Fergus. A Guide to Early Irish Law. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1998, p. 199
4. Ibid., pps. 125-157
5. Ibid., p. 12
6. Ibid., pps. 5-6

[source]

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You can also now download a Celtic Myth Podshow App from the iTunes store. This is the most convenient and reliable way to access the Celtic Myth Podshow on your iPhone or iPod Touch. You’re always connected to the latest episode, and our App users have access to exclusive bonus content, just touch and play! To find out more visit the iTunes Store or our Description Page.
You can now also find an Android version of the App which works identically to the iPhone version. You can find it on Appbrain at http://www.appbrain.com/app/celtic-myth-show/tv.wizzard.android.celticmythpodshow841 or by using the QR code opposite.
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Tara Grave Pic: Causes.com

A new cause has been started on causes.com to petition the Irish Government to re-bury the bodies dug up in constructing the M3 motorway through the Tara monuments in accordance with the World Archaeological Congress’s guidelines.   During excavations for the M3 Motorway which desecrated the Irish Valley of the High Kings at Tara, a large number of ancestral remains were removed from their Sacred Burial Grounds. Just one of our group’s many aims and objectives includes the recovery of the remains and artefacts unearthed during excavations of the M3 Motorway from the National Museum of Ireland.

World Archeological Congress  2008 (22/07)

The Vermillion Accord on Human Remains
Adopted in 1989 at WAC Inter-Congress, South Dakota, USA.

1. Respect for the mortal remains of the dead shall be accorded to all, irrespective of origin, race, religion, nationality, custom and tradition.

2. Respect for the wishes of the dead concerning disposition shall be accorded whenever possible, reasonable and lawful, when they are known or can be reasonably inferred. …

[source]

This call has received the backing of the World Archaeological Congress. We wish for the respectful reinternment of these ancestral remains and ask that you the reader, sign the petition just as Actor Stewart Townsend, Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney, Pulitzer Prize winner Paul Muldoon, Musicians Laoise Kelly and Steve Cooney, along with thousands of others worldwide have done.

Sign the petition at this link and please pass it on.

http://www.petitiononline.com/taraeir…

1. www.taraskryne.com

Tara Skryne Preservation Group

About TSPG:
We are an allied group of stakeholders, campaigners and concerned citizens who wish to improve the Tara Skryne Landscape after the destruction wrought by the M3 Motorway through the most Sacred, Mythical, and Historical Valley of Ireland.

We are a volunteer, non politically affiliated organisation comprised of members of various groups who stood against the route of the M3 Motorway through the Tara Skryne Valley. Now that the Motorway has opened we stand together to demand the preservation of what remains of the Tara Skryne Valley ie. its protection against further inapproriate development as well as greater protection for our National Monuments and sacred places countrywide.

Read more about us, our aims and objectives and why we formed at www.taraskryne.comJust one of our group’s many aims and objectives includes the recovery of the remains and artefacts unearthed during excavations of the M3 Motorway from the National Museum of Ireland. This call has received the backing of the World Archaeological Congress. We wish for the respectful reinternment of these ancestral remains and ask that you the reader, sign the petition just as Actor Stewart Townsend, Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney, Pulitzer Prize winner Paul Muldoon, Musicians Laoise Kelly and Steve Cooney, along with thousands of others worldwide have done.

Sign the petition at this link and please pass it on.

http://www.petitiononline.com/taraeire/petition.html

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You can also now download a Celtic Myth Podshow App from the iTunes store. This is the most convenient and reliable way to access the Celtic Myth Podshow on your iPhone or iPod Touch. You’re always connected to the latest episode, and our App users have access to exclusive bonus content, just touch and play! To find out more visit the iTunes Store or our Description Page.
You can now also find an Android version of the App which works identically to the iPhone version. You can find it on Appbrain at http://www.appbrain.com/app/celtic-myth-show/tv.wizzard.android.celticmythpodshow841 or by using the QR code opposite.
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The CMP Logo Pic: Gary

In this show we start to summarise the Irish Mythological Cycle as we’ve met it so far in the first 29 story episodes. Not only is this show finishing off a whole branch of Celtic Mythology, but it also celebrates the Autumn Equinox for 2011, so we’ve made it a real cracker and split it into two halves. We’ve got an epic poem, 4 great songs in this first half and we take a look at the Origins of the Manuscripts which these stories come from and highlight some of the themes we’ve noticed in the stories.

This was the question we asked you: what themes do you think are the most important, and this show includes your ideas as well as ours.

We conclude our examination of the Irish Mythological Cycle in the Second Part of this show which will be dropped into the feed and available for download 2-3 days after this one so you have chance to listen to the show and keep it fresh in the old brain box before we finish of the show with the end of the poem, the other observations we’ve made and yes more great music!

Phew!

How to Listen

The Episode is available for subscribers on the feed, or you can download it or listen to it from our Episodes page. You can find the Shownotes for this episode in the Shownotes section.

If you come to the site and listen or listen from one of our players – have you considered subscribing? It’s easy and you automatically get the episodes on your computer when they come out. If you’re unsure about the whole RSS/Subscribing thing take a look at our Help page.

Hope you enjoy it,

Gary & Ruthie x x x

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You can also now download a Celtic Myth Podshow App from the iTunes store. This is the most convenient and reliable way to access the Celtic Myth Podshow on your iPhone or iPod Touch. You’re always connected to the latest episode, and our App users have access to exclusive bonus content, just touch and play! To find out more visit the iTunes Store or our Description Page.
You can now also find an Android version of the App which works identically to the iPhone version. You can find it on Appbrain at http://www.appbrain.com/app/celtic-myth-show/tv.wizzard.android.celticmythpodshow841 or by using the QR code opposite.
If you come to the site and listen or listen from one of our players – have you considered subscribing? It’s easy and you automatically get the episodes on your computer when they come out. If you’re unsure about the whole RSS/Subscribing thing take a look at our Help page.

Early Irish Man Pic: Irish Tribes

Thanks to the Irish Tribes website, specialists in Irish Genealogy, for this article exploring the story of the ‘Cath Almaine’  or ‘The Battle of Allen’ and what it shows us about early Ireland. the story of this battle is fascinating and reveals much about the early Christian celtic traditions. They begin with:- The Story   “Cath Almaine” or ”The Battle of Allen” is a story written in Middle Irish which was composed some time after 950 A.D. based on a battle which was fought in 722 A.D.  In that year, the High-King Fergal mac Máele Dúin demanded the bóramha or ”cattle-tribute” from the Laighin.  The Laighin and their king Murchad mac Brain refused.

The High-King called on Conn’s Half (i.e., on the Uí Néill, the Airghialla, and the Connachta) to come together to invade Leinster.  But, according to the story, the warriors of the North were reluctant.  They said that they should wait to see what Donn Bó would do, the young man who was best in Ireland for the composition of lays, the telling of stories, the harnessing of horses, the riveting of spears, and the plaiting of hair.  But Donn Bó didn’t get permission from his mother to go on this hosting until she got a promise from Máel mac Failbe, coarb of St. Colm Cille, that Donn Bó would return to her safe and sound.

The host of Conn’s Half entered Leinster.  The host insulted Áedán, a leper in Cluain Dubhail.  Áedán said that God would avenge him upon the Uí Néill forever.  Donn Bó became terribly discouraged.  He refused to sing or recite for Fergal that night, but he promised that he would sing a song for him the next night no matter where they might be.

St. Brighid Appears

The hosts came together on December 11, 722 at the Hill of Almhaine, Co. Kildare.  St. Brighid showed herself over the hosts for the sake of the Laighin and St. Colm Cille showed himself above the hosts for the sake of the Uí Néill.  Brighid won the day.  The battle was broken on the Uí Néill.  Fergal mac Máele Dúin was killed along with thousands of others on the Uí Néill side.  Many of them were beheaded, including Donn Bó.  That night while the Laighin were celebrating, the Laighin warrior Báethgalach went out to the field of slaughter.  There in the dark, he heard the head of Donn Bó singing sweetly for Fergal in fulfillment of his promise.  At last, through a miracle of Colm Cille, the head of Donn Bó was placed back on his neck and he came home safe and sound to his mother.

A Window on Early Christian Ireland

For a good part of the ancient beliefs, norms, relationships, and rituals found in the story called “Cath Almaine”, we can find corroboration in various fields such as archeology, DNA research, and European history. Let’s look at some of these cultural characteristics, particularly those which are corroborated by new research.

A.  Donn Bó and his Hair

…is uad bud ferr rann espa ocus ríg-scéla for doman. Is é bud ferr do glés ech ocus do innsma shleg ocus d’fhige fholt. (1)

…is é ba fhearr ar an domhain do laoithe a chumadh agus rí-scéalta a insint.  Is é ba fhearr do chapaill a ghléasadh, sleánna a inseamú, agus folt a thrilseánú.

… he was the best in the world in composing lays and telling royal stories.  He was the best at harnessing horses, rivetting spears, and plaiting hair.

We can see from these lines that the Gaeil had significant interest in the appearance of their hair in the early Christian period. We now have definite evidence that such interest came down from the centuries before Christ.

Specifically, a human sacrifice was found in 2003 in a bog in Clonycavan, Co. Meath. According to radiocarbon dating done on this “Clonycavan Man”, he was alive at some time between 392 BC and 201 B.C. During his lifetime, he gave much attention to his hair and he used a kind of hair-gel made from plant oil and resin imported from SE Europe.

We know that the human head was important in the religion and ritual of the Celts as the seat of the soul.  It is easy to understand, therefore, that hair and its appearance were also important.

There were others in Europe in the Iron Age who were interested in hair-plaiting and hair-styles. In 1948, “Osterby Man” was found in a bog near Osterby, Germany. He was a warrior of the Suebi, a warrior of the Germanic tribe mentioned by Tacitus and renowned for the ‘Swabian Knot’ in their hair. “Osterby Man” was alive about the first century after Christ.

B.  Connachta, Uí Néill, Airghialla, and DNA

Ba trom trá la Fergal sin .i. Laigin do nemchomall a n-gellta fris, co rofhuacrad sluaiged dírecra dímór uad for Leith Chuinn .i. for Eogan ocus for Conall ocus for Airgiallaib ocus Mide … do thobach na bórama.  (2)

Ba throm le Fergal é sin, .i. nár chomhlíon Laighin a ngeall leis, agus d’fhógair sé slógadh ollmhór ar Leath Chuinn, .i. ar Chinéal Eoghain agus ar Chinéal Chonaill agus ar Airghialla agus Mhíde …  chun an Bhóramha a thobhach.

That was onerous to Fergal, i.e., that the Laighin did not fulfill their promise to him, and he called on Conn’s Half for a great hosting, i.e., on the Cinéal eoghain and Cinéal Chonaill and the Airghialla and Míde… to levy the Bóramha.

In this sentence, we can see reference to the “official genealogy” of the Dál Chuinn created by the seanchaidhthe of the Uí Néill which claims that the Connachta, Uí Néill In Tuaiscirt (with Cinéal Chonaill and Cinéal Eoghain among them), Clann Choirpre mhic Néill (which is not mentioned in this sentence), Mide (.i. Uí Néill in Deiscirt), and Airghialla, descend from Conn Chéadchathach.

In 2006, geneticists at Trinity College, Dublin, suggested that most of the Uí Néill descend from someone who lived some 1700 years ago and that person was the “most fecund” man in the history of Ireland.  Many immediately assumed that this was Niall Naoighiallach.

Between 2006 and 2009, it was confirmed that most of the Uí Néill and Connachta descend from one common ancestor.  In those studies, the geneticists had plenty of DNA samples from the Uí Bhriúin and the Uí Fhiachrach, but it was difficult to find DNA samples from the Uí Ailella and the Uí Fergusa.  In Fergus’ case, only the Síl Fergusa Cháecháin descend from him.

In the genealogies, as we know, Eochu Mugmedón was the common ancestor of the Connachta and Uí Néill. But it is also possible that this common DNA comes down from an ancestor of Eochu, unknown or legendary (e.g. Muiredach Tírech, Fiachu Sraiptine, Cairbre Lifechair, 7rl.).

The Uí Ruairc are an important exception. We expect from Seanchas that they would descend from the Uí Bhriúin, but they have a distinct DNA ‘haplogroup’; i.e., they do not descend from the Uí Bhriúin.  Also, despite the official genealogies of the Uí Néill (and as predicted by T.F. O’Rahilly and other scholars), there is no blood relationship between the Airghialla and the Connachta.  And as Byrne shows with the following verse (written in a text of Féineachas in the 8th Century), there was no consanguinity either between Dal Chuinn (i.e., the Féini) and the Ulaidh, or between the Dal Chuinn and the Laighin:

Batar trí prímcheinéla i nHére, .i. Féini 7 Ulaith 7 Gáilni .i. Laigin.   (3)

Bhí trí phríomhchinéal in Éirinn, .i. Féini agus Ulaidh agus Gáilni, .i. Laighin.

There were three primary kinships in Ireland, i.e., the Féini and Ulaidh and Gáilióin, i.e., the Laighin.

C.  The Human Head as a Trophy

Is ann-sin roráid Murchad mac Brain: “Do-bérainn carpat ceithre cumala ocus mo ech ocus m’errad don láech noragad isin n-ármach ocus do-bérad comartha chucainn as.”   “Ragat-sa,” ar Báethgalach …  (4)

Is ansin go ndúirt Murchad mac Brain:  “Do bhéarfainn carbad ceithre cumhal agus m’each agus mo chathéide don laoch a rachadh in áit an áir agus do bhéarfadh comhramh chugainn as.”  “Rachaidh mé,” ar Báethgalach…

Then Murchad mac Brain said:  “I would give a chariot worth four cumhal and my steed and my battle dress to the warrior who would go into the place of slaughter and who would bear a trophy to us out of it.”  “I will go,” said Báethgalach…

Perhaps it is not an exaggeration to say that we can find head-hunting or head-taking in virtually every early Irish story except in those of naomhsheanchas. (Even in the area of the Faith, we can see images of heads on churches as at Díseart Uí Dheághaidh.) There is corroboration for our head-taking among the Celts outside Ireland in accounts written by Poseidonius, Strabo, Livy, Ammianus, Diodorus Siculus, and others. Celts took the heads of famous commanders such as the Roman general Postumius and the Greek king Ptolemy Keraunos.

But in the story “Cath Almaine”, when the warrior Báethgalach said he would go out to bring back a trophy from the field of slaughter, Murchad mac Brain said nothing about a human head.  Based on newly-discovered remains in a Celtic sanctuary at Ribemont-sur-Ancre, France, we can imagine that the word “comartha” was non-specific, just as is the word ‘comhramh’ in Modern Irish and the word ‘trophy’ in English. In this  sanctuary, built around 260 B.C. in honor of a Celtic god and in memory of a battle in which tribes of the Belgii won a victory over Armorican tribes, the enclosure is crowded with row on row of hundreds of warriors, decapitated but still in their battle-armor.

D.  Pious Lepers

I did an electronic search in the annals for “clamh”, “lobhar”, “leper” and their variations. There is no reference to any leper in the Annals of Tigenach or the Annals of Loch Cé, but I found the following references in other annals.

1.  Annála Ríoghachta na hÉireann:

551.2   S. Neasan Lobhar d’écc.
551.2  Fuair Naomh Neasan an lobhar bás.
551.2  St. Neasan the leper died.

722. For this year, a summary of the story “Cath Almaine” was written in which we find reference to “the cow of the leper”, but Áedan the leper is not named.

2.  Annála Uladh:

A.D. 921.8  Indredh Aird Macha … o Gallaibh Atha Cliath, .i. o Gothbrith oa Imhair, cum suo exercitu, …  & na taigi aernaighi do anacal lais cona lucht de cheilibh De & di lobraibh…

A.D. 921.8  Invasion of Ard Macha … by the Foreigners of Áth Cliath, .i. by Gothfrith grandson of Ímar, with his army, … and the houses of prayer were spared by him with their culdees and of lepers…

A.D. 952.3  Cele clam & ancorita ..
A.D. 952.3  Fuair Céile, lobhar agus ancairít, bás…
A.D. 952.3  Céile, leper and anchorite, died…

3.  Annála Inse Fáil:

A.D. 556.1  Nistán leprosus obíit.
A.D. 556.1  Fuair Nistán (.i. “San Neasan”) bás.
A.D. 556.1  Nistán (St. Nessan) died.

4.  Annála Chonnacht:

A.D. 1232.9  Fachtna h. hAllgaith comarba Dromma Mucado & oificel h. Fiachrach, fer tigi aiged & lubra & leginn & lesaigti tiri & talman, in hoc anno quieuit.

A.D. 1232.9  Fachtna Ó hAllgaith, coarb of Drumacoo and Official of the Uí Fiachrach, who kept a guest-house and a leper-house and was (a man) of learning and a benefactor of the countryside, rested this year.

5.  Chronicon Scotorum:

A.D. 557   Nessan leprosus quieuit.
A.D. 557  Nessan (.i. San Neasan) rested.

As we see above, there is a close link between lepers and Christianity in the Annals.

E. Brigid and Colm Cille making war on each other

The monasteries (and saints) made war on each other often enough in the early Christian period. For example, in the Annals of Ulster:

A.D. 760.8  Bellum hitir muintir Clono 7 Biroir i mMoin Choisse Blae.  (5)

A.D. 760.8 Cath idir manistir Chluain Mhic Nóis agus manistir Bhiorra i Móin Choise Blae

A.D. 760.8 a battle between the monastery of Clonmacnoise and the monastery of Birr in Móin Choise Blae

A.D. 764.6  Bellum Arggamain inter familiam Cluana Mocu Nois 7 Dearmaighe ubi ceciderunt Diarmait Dub m. Domnaill 7 Dighlach m. Duib Liss 7 .cc. uiri de familia Dermaige.  Bresal m. Murchada uictor exstetit com familia Cluana.  (6)

A.D. 764.6  Cath Argamain idir familia Chluain Mhic Nóis agus (mainistir Choilm Cille ag) Darú inar thit Diarmait Dub mac Domnaill agus Dighlach mac Duib Liss agus 200 fear saor de familia Dharú.  Tháinig Bresal mac Murchada agus familia Chluain Mhic Nóis as an gcath mar bhuaiteoirí.

A.D. 764.6  The Battle of Argamain between the family of Clonmacnoise and (the monastery of Colm Cille) at Durrow in which fell Diarmait Dub mac Domhnail and Dighlach mac Duib Liss and 200 free men of the family of Durrow.  Bresal mac Murchada and the family of Clonmacnoise came out of the battle as victors.

And it was said that Colm Cille made war for the sake of Cinéal Chonaill through the ages each time the Uí Dhomhnaill brought his Cathach into battle with them.

Summary

“Cath Almaine” is a wonderfully rich story, filled with the world-view (. i. ‘weltanschauung’) of the Gaeil.  With improvement in areas like archaeology and DNA research almost every day, I expect we will learn more about this story and its ancient beliefs, practices, relationships, and rituals in the coming years.

_____________

1   Cath Almaine, edited by Pádraig Ó Riain,   Baile Átha Cliath: Institiúid Ard-Léinn Bhaile Átha Cliath, 1978.
Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition (CELT), paragraph 3 on http://celt.ucc.ie/published/G302022/index.html .  I am
grateful to Professor Tomás Ó Cathasaigh for his translation “The Battle of Allen”, Coursepack,   Celtic E-  114,
Early Irish Historical Tales, Spring Term, 2011
2   Cath Almaine, edited by Pádraig Ó Riain, CELT edition, paragraph 2
3   Byrne, p. 106
4   Cath Almaine, edited by Pádraig Ó Riain, CELT edition, paragraph 15
5   Annals of Ulster, edited by Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill, Part 1.  Baile Átha Cliath:
Institiúid Ard-Léinn Bhaile Átha Cliath, 1983.  p. 214
6   Ibid., p. 216

With thanks to Gerald Kelly for his research. We are a little confused as to the freedom to use this piece as it is listed here as a “Free Article” and here as written permission needed. We have chosen the route most obvious to spread the word of Mr. Kelly’s research, but if he should wish that this article be withdrawn we will most happily do so and apologise for any misunderstanding or inconvenience caused.

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Ned Kelly of the National Museum of Ireland examines the bog body found in Cashel Bog, Co Laois Pic: Irish examiner

JAMES O’SHEA reporter for IrishCentral.com reports:An expert has stated that the latest bog body found in Ireland has proven that belief that the Celts ritually sacrificed their kings to the Gods.The body also proves  they underwent horrible deaths, if the times turned bad under their reign.

The latest Iron Age bog body dating back to at least 2,000 BC was discovered near Portlaoise  in the Irish midlands by an alert bog worker and it bears the same hallmarks of ritual torture that two other famous bodies have.

Ned Kelly, keeper of antiquities at the National Museum of Ireland told the Irish Examiner that a clear pattern has emerged in each case.

“We do not think of these bog bodies in the same way as we do axes or implements that are found,” he says. “You have to remember that these are individuals and it is absolutely essential to deal with their remains in a dignified manner. There would be no justification in taking these bodies unless we do so with respect and with the serious intent to tell their stories on their behalf.”

“I am quite convinced we are dealing with an Iron Age male, one who was subjected to a ritual killing. There are cuts and marks on the body that indicate that this is somebody who was done to death.”

The body is linked closely to two other major finds, the discoveries of Old Croghan Man and Clonycavan Man, also found in Irish bogs both of whom were ritually sacrificed.

Human sacrifice was apparently a normal part of the Celtic rituals , especially of kings in hard times.

“The killings tend to be excessive,”

Kelly, said

“in that more is done to the bodies than would be required to bring about their deaths. Bog bodies may have their throats cut, been stabbed in the heart and have other cut marks. However, it is absolutely not torture, but a form of ritual sacrifice.”

“The king had great power but also great responsibility to ensure the prosperity of his people. Through his marriage on his inauguration to the goddess of the land, he was meant to guarantee her benevolence. He had to ensure the land was productive, so if the weather turned bad, or there was plague, cattle disease or losses in war, he was held personally responsible.”

At 6’6″, Old Croghan Man, who was killed between 362 BC and 175 BC, was a giant of a man. he bore every appearance of a nobleman from his well manicured soft hands to his diet, which was rich in meat.
Clonycavan Man was little more than 5 ft and used pine resin to keep his hair in place.

Kelly says Old Croghan Man died horribly, had had holes cut in his upper arms through which a rope was pulled through in order to restrain him. He was  stabbed repeatedly and he had his nipples sliced, before  he was finally  cut in half.

Clonycavan Man was disemboweled and struck  three times across the head with an axe and once across the body and also had his nipples cut.

Cutting the nipples was more than torture, the aim  was to dethrone the king.

“Sucking a king’s nipples was a gesture of submission in ancient Ireland,”

says Kelly.

“Cutting them would have made him incapable of kingship in this world or the next.”

“By using a range of methods to kill the victim, the ancient Irish sacrificed to the goddess in all her forms. This manner of death is peculiar to the ritual killing of kings. It means that a king was being decommissioned.”

“I think it is important we treat them with respect. They have come down to us with a story to tell and it is our duty to tell that story on their behalf. If we do that, it will give added meaning to their lives.”

Source

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Sliabh Coillte Pic: Great Korean Adventure

This could be one of the most important posts we’ve ever made. Is the Irish Book of Invasions myth or history or both?A small mountain outside New Ross is Ireland’s Mount Arrarat where the first invasion of Ireland look place, Simon W. Kennedy, told a conference at JFK Arboretum last Thursday evening, in what he said would be a revelation to most people, reports the New Ross Standard.

He said this 275 metre high mountain and its hinterland has the significance of ‘another Newgrange’ and is probably connected to Newgrange in an alignment of a cosmic graph.

The well-known solicitor and author told the conference that he believes Sliabh Coillte is one of the country’s most ancient sacred places and of great significance.

‘Historians have ignored or have not known the significance of place names including Kilmokea, Whitechurch and Slieve Coillte as the first and foremost place of ancient priority and importance in the Irish experience,’

said Simon.

‘Whitechurch was the site of an ancient temple known as the Temple of Brightness, nearby Kilmokea or Mileadoc was the spot at which Cessair the granddaughter of Noah, escaping the flood, made the first incursion or invasion into Ireland, and Sliabh Coillte was where the first invasion of Ireland took place in 2242 B.C.,’

he explained.

‘Historians have up to now failed to join the dots in tracing Sliabh Coillte’s central connection with Irish mythology, its association with Kilmokea, the confluence of the Three Sisters – the Barrow, the Nore and Suir – an amazing alignment of standing stones, the true translation of local place names and their meaning in the context of the rise and setting of the sun, folklore and topography,’

he added.

As part of his conference, Simon displayed various pieces of evidence of his findings following many years of research.

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The Celtic Tiger? Pic: Tambako the Jaguar

As you know, we at the Celtic Myth Podshow, try and avoid any particular political and/or religious stance - our main sphere of interest is in the Ancient Celts. Where did they come from? Where did they go and what traces of them are left today? We found this following commentary by George Monbiot in the Guardian.co.uk newspaper website, and the political questions he asks bear a direct relationship to the religious, archaeological, and traditions/heritage of the Ancient and modern Celts in Ireland.The economical growth that Ireland has seen has been called the ‘Celtic Tiger‘. He looks at the economical growth over the past 60 years and asks the question: how much of this is real?I do not understand the politics involved, I do not understand the choices that have been made or are available to be made - politics has never been my strong suit – I only understand the destruction that the Sacred Landscape in Erin has suffered.

This post is for those who do understand such things and are in positions where they have the power to help preserve the land and traditions of the Ancient Celts, that precious Irish heritage that is genuinely so important to our global Celtic heritage as well as the Irish tourism industry.

George goes on to say:

How much of this is real? How much of the economic growth of the past 60 years? Of the wealth and comfort, the salaries and pensions that older people accept as normal, even necessary? How much of it is an illusion, created by levels of borrowing – financial and ecological – that cannot be sustained? Go to Ireland and you’ll see that even bricks and mortar are a mirage: the marvels of the new economy, built on debt, stand empty and worthless.

To sustain the illusion, we have inflicted more damage since 1950 to the planet’s living systems than we achieved in the preceding 100,000 years. The damage will last for centuries; the benefits might not see out the year. Ireland, again, points a withered finger at the future.

Among other iniquities, the government forced a motorway through the Gabhra Valley, part of a site – the Hill of Tara complex – comparable in its importance to Stonehenge. It was both an act of wilful vandalism and a notice of intent: no consideration would impede the economic miracle. The road hadn’t opened before the miracle collapsed.

Once our needs had been met, continued economic growth did most people few favours. During the second half of the growth frenzy, unemployment rose, inequality rose, social mobility declined, the poor lost amenities (such as housing) while the rich enhanced theirs. In 2004, at the height of the longest boom the UK has ever experienced, the Nuffield Foundation published this extraordinary finding:

“Rises in mental health problems seem to be associated with improvements in economic conditions.”

Now, bar the shouting, it’s over. Last week the Wall Street consultant Nouriel Roubini, one of the few who predicted the financial crash, spelt out the fix we’re in. Governments cannot afford to bail out the banks again. Quantitative easing can no longer help, nor can currency depreciation. Italy and Spain will be forced, in effect, to default, and Germany won’t pay out any more. The successful capitalist reached this striking conclusion:

“Karl Marx, it seems, was partly right in arguing that globalisation, financial intermediation run amok, and redistribution of income and wealth from labour to capital could lead capitalism to self-destruct.”

The Solution?

The most hopeful sign that politicians might now be prepared to ask the big questions was the presence, in Ed Miliband’s pile of holiday reading, of Prof Tim Jackson’s book Prosperity Without Growth. It’s a revolutionary text, now two years old, whose time has come.

But how do you escape from growth without tanking the economy – and our prosperity? Under the current system, you can’t: when growth stops, it collapses. So Jackson has begun developing a macroeconomic model which would allow economic output to be stabilised. He experiments with raising the ratio of investment to consumption, changing the nature and conditions of investment and shifting the balance from private to public spending, while staying within tight constraints on the use of resources. He finds that the redistribution of both income and employment (through shorter working hours) is essential to the project. So is re-regulation of the banks, enhanced taxation of resources and pollution and measures to discourage manic consumption, such as tighter restrictions on advertising.

His system is not wholly different to today’s: people will still spend and save, companies will still produce goods and services, governments will still raise taxes and spend money. It requires more government intervention than we’re used to; but so does every option we face from now on, especially if we try to sustain the growth illusion. The results, though, are radically different: a stable, growthless economy which avoids both financial and ecological collapse.

From now on, as the old dream dies, nothing is straightforward. But at least we have the beginning of a plan.
Read the full article on the Guardian website at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/aug/22/economic-growth-environment

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Irish Warrior 9th Century Pic: War & Game

Some of the most studious historians can be found within the ranks of war-gamers, and Mitch Williamson, who runs the amazing War and Game website, has published well over 3000 fascinating articles. We all owe credit to him for the research that he has done and in particular for this article about the history of the Irish Warrior from the time of the first professional fighting force, the Fianna led by the famous Fionn mac Cumhaill up until the time of Oliver Cromwell, where the military and political situation took on some major changes. The article continues…    Armies in Ireland trace their origins to the legendary Fianna and their leader Finn mac Cumaill. From at least the eleventh century, the Irish kings maintained small permanent fighting forces later known as their teaghlach or lucht tighe — meaning “troops of the household.”

These were well-equipped and were divided into footmen and marcshluag (cavalry). Highly skilled professional soldiers, they were often given houses and lands among the king’s mensal lands. It was clear that, from the reign of Brian Boru (d. 1014), Irish kings could take large forces of spearmen, swordsmen, archers, slingers, and horsemen on campaign, often combining them in operations with naval forces.

To put such forces into the field, Irish kings must have developed an extensive support network to maintain, arm, and feed their troops on campaign. The size of these armies and the destructive scale of Irish warfare were aptly demonstrated in 1151 at the battle of Móin Mór, where seven thousand soldiers fell, if the annals are to be believed. What characterized Irish warfare during this period was the rapid mobility of armies. For example, Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (d. 1198) developed large forces of highly mobile and well armed horsemen—mainly drawn from the upper classes of his vassals.

The Development of Infantry

In comparison, Irish infantry forces seem mostly to have been lightly armed footmen. However, it is likely that the Irish elite soldiery had adopted Ostman-style chain mail armor; finds of armor-piercing arrowheads at Waterford show that some of its defenders wore chain mail. Moreover, Ruaidrí perhaps developed his permanent foot soldiers of his teaghlach or lucht tighe into a form of heavy infantry — similar to the household jarls of the Anglo-Saxon kings. Another major development in the composition of Irish armies was the growing dependence of Irish kings upon mercenaries later known as ceithirne congbála (retained bands). And from the early 1100s, Irish kings—such as Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn (d. 1166) were looking abroad — recruiting Hebridean-Norse forces and fleets from the Western Isles of Scotland to serve in Ireland.

Mail & Pole-axe Pic: War & Game

The military power of a great king such as Ruaidrí was maintained by the levy of Gaelic military service —  illustrating the extent of a king’s overlordship over his vassals. All the able-bodied population—apart from the learned and the clergy — were eligible for service. A king’s principal military commander was the marasgal (marshal), an office whose origins lay probably in the earlier dux luchta tige (the head of the king’s household). The marshal’s principal duty was the organization of the king’s army, particularly the levying and billeting of troops along with the fining of those who failed to render military service.

English and Welsh Mercenaries

However, warfare and armies changed forever after the return in 1167 of Diarmait Mac Murchada (d. 1171) from Britain with English and Welsh mercenaries. The devastation of East Leinster by these forces demonstrated that they were vastly superior to their Irish opponents. Yet it would be a mistake to view Irish and English armies as uniracial. Other Irish kings soon followed Mac Murchada’s example of building his forces around an English spine; Domnall Mac Gilla Pátraic of Osraige (d. 1185) hired Maurice de Prendergast in 1169 to resist Mac Murchada, and exemplified the fluid nature of military service, rendering feudal service to Richard de Clare (Strongbow, d. 1176). Further, Cathal Crobderg Ua Conchobair of Connacht (d. 1224) strengthened his forces in 1195 by employing the services of Gilbert de Angulo (d. 1212), demonstrating the hybrid nature of the forces in his pay.

On the other hand, English armies in Ireland were dependent upon military feudalism, whereby all royal tenants, both English and Irish, were obliged to render military service in the feudal host. Essentially, the arms of the feudal host were made up of knights, men at arms, footmen, archers, and hobelars (forces of lightly armed and mobile horsemen adapted to the conditions of Irish warfare). Throughout much of the thirteenth century, English armies continually demonstrated their superiority in pitched battles with the Irish. The major difference between the Irish and English armies of this time was the quality of their cavalry.

Heavy Cavalry forces heavy losses

Galloglass Pic: Wiki

In contrast with the lightly armed Irish horseman, the heavily armored English knight was mounted on a large horse known as a charger. The defeat at Athenry in September 1249 of Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair (d. 1266), king of Connacht, showed that Irish forces could not resist the massed charge of English cavalry. This led to innovations to balance the military equilibrium. In 1259, Áed son of Feidlim Ua Conchobair (d. 1274), prince of Connacht, formed a marriage-alliance with the Hebridean-Norse king of the Western Isles. As part of his bride’s dowry, he gained 160 fighting men known as galloglass—heavy infantry which fought in formations designed to counter English cavalry-charges.

The weakness of the Dublin government for much of the Middle Ages — combined with absence of a royal standing army—meant that English forces were to become increasingly hybrid. As time progressed, galloglass became a feature of English armies in Ireland. But the development of large private armies by the English magnates of Ireland was crucial to the survival of their power on the frontiers. Clearly, they were adopting Gaelic elements. In Ulster, the de Burgh earls adopted the buannacht (bonaght; the wages and provisions of a galloglass), which involved quartering galloglass throughout the earldom, while the earls levied the tuarastal (wages) of these elite soldiers upon the people. During the parliament of 1297, it emerged that English magnates often hired Irish troops, billeting them upon their own English tenants—prompting the outlawry of this practice.

Other English magnates in Ireland billeted troops upon their tenants; it was reputed that James Fitzgerald (d. 1463), seventh earl of Desmond, first imposed coinnmhead (coyne; billeting) upon his earldom. During the early decades of the fifteenth century James Butler (d. 1452), fourth earl of Ormond, imposed forces of “kernety” and galloglass throughout his lands in Tipperary and Kilkenny — granting them the right to take a cuid oidche (cuddy; a night’s portion of food, drink, and entertainment) from every freeholder’s house. The change in the composition of private English armies was dramatically illustrated in the usage by Desmond and Ormond of kernety—a form of military police, traditionally only in the service of Irish lords, for arresting offenders and acting as guards of a lordship.

English and Irish Hybrid Armies

That Ormond instituted this form was remarkable—but even more remarkable was the fact that his 120 kernety were drawn evenly from the Purcells and the Codys, families of English lineage. The rise of the Fitzgerald earls of Kildare from 1456 further displayed the hybrid nature of armies in Ireland. In 1474, Thomas Fitzgerald (d. 1478), seventh earl of Kildare, established a permanent fighting force, the “Fraternity of St. George,” comprising 160 archers and 63 spearmen. However, the Kildares’ real military strength lay in their large forces of Mac Domnaill galloglass — forcing the Leinster Irish to recruit galloglass of their own. Such was the power of the Kildares that they were able to billet their galloglass upon the Pale, levying “coyne and livery” upon Englishmen for their maintenance.

The Return of the Royal Army and Cromwell’s destruction of private armies

From the late 1510s, the English government became convinced of the necessity of reform in Ireland and gradually royal armies returned. The collapse of the Kildare rebellion in 1535 created a countrywide political vacuum, so the Dublin government sought to extend royal jurisdiction throughout the country, demanding the dissolution of all private armies and the abolition of coyne and livery. There was vehement resistance—particularly from the Irish lords. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, Irish leaders such as Áed Ua Néill (d. 1616), second earl of Tyrone, and Fiach Ua Broin (d. 1597) emerged to revolutionize Irish armies and warfare by adopting foreign ideas, tactics, training, and formations. Tyrone trained a redcoated Ulster army to fight in the Spanish tercio formation, using both pike and musket. He won great victories at Clontribret in 1595 and at Yellow Ford three years later, but his defeat at Kinsale in 1601 effectively ended resistance from coordinated Irish forces. However, the allegiance owed to the great lords was still hard to destroy completely. Indeed, it took the armies of Oliver Cromwell (d. 1656), lord protector of England, during the late 1640s and 1650s to finally tear up the last roots of the private armies.

References and Further Reading

Barry, Terry, et al., eds. Colony and Frontier in Medieval Ireland. London: Hambleton Press, 1995.

Bartlett, Robert and Angus McKay, eds. Medieval Frontiers Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Bartlett, Thomas and Keith Jeffrey, eds. A Military History of Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Byrne, Francis. Irish Kings and High-Kings. London: Batsford, 1973.

Harbison, Peter. “Native Irish Arms and Armour in Medieval Gaelic Literature, 1170–1600.” Irish Sword 12 (1975–1976): 174–180.

Lydon, James. “The Hobelar: An Irish Contribution to Medieval Warfare.” Irish Sword 2 (1954–1956): 13–15.

———, ed. Law and Disorder in the Thirteenth-Century Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1997.

———. The Lordship of Ireland in the Middle Ages. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003.

Morgan, Hiram. Tyrone’s Rebellion. London: Boydell Press, 1999.

Nicholls, Kenneth. Gaelic and Gaelicized Ireland. Rev. ed. Dublin: Lilliput Press, 2003.

O’Byrne, Emmett. War, Politics and the Irish of Leinster, 1156–1606. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003.

Otway-Ruthven, Jocelyn. “Knight Service in Ireland.” Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquities 79 (1959): 1–7.

———. “Royal Service in Ireland.” Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquities 98 (1968): 37–39.

Simms, Katherine. “Warfare in Medieval Irish Lordships.” Irish Sword 12 (1975–1976): 98–105.

———. From Kings to Warlords. London: Boydell Press, 1987.

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