Pic: H. Kopperdelany’s |
The Celtic Britons called themselves the Cymry, which meant "fellow countrymen" in their Celtic tongue. Once Roman rule ended in Britain in about 410 A.D., a power vacuum developed, leading to the onslaught of Germanic invasions by Angles and Saxons, then the retreat of the Cymry Celts into the northern and western areas of the isle. |
The Celtic-speaking areas thus became Scotland (which was largely a Gaelic territory), as well as the Brythonic regions consisting of Wales (called Cymru by the Celtic peoples), Cornwall, and Cumbria (another land of the Cymry in what is now northwestern England).
The Anglo-Saxons called the Celts a different word–"wealas," which in their language meant "foreigners." Over time wealas formed into the English words Wales and the Welsh.
The sagas of the struggles between the Celtic Britons and the Anglo-Saxons is well preserved in Celtic mythology, and legendary figures arise from the pages. These stories are preserved in the Welsh language, a Celtic tongue, but are also found in the works of contemporary scholars writing in Latin: Gildas (died circa 570), Nennius (c. 800), and Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. 1155).
The heroes of the Cymry Celtic myths do have some elements of reality under their belts, but the borders between history and legend are often blurred. The word "euhemerism" refers to situations were the gods or demigods of mythology were really deified human beings, whose stories gained a massive status. Also there is the notion that myths can sometimes be traditional accounts of real people and events, which over time have gained in immensity. The Briton heroes do have a euhemeristic side, and looking back, we don’t always know which stories represent literal reality and which don’t.
Two Welsh Bards: Taliesin and Aneurin
Bards were Celtic poets and lyric storytellers. They held high position in Celtic society, and their words inspired fear and awe. As the Greek writer Diodorus Siculus noted in the first century B.C.: "Among the Celts are composers of melodies, called Bards, who sing to instruments like lyres…and in such reverence are they held, that when two armies, prepared for battle, have cast their darts and drawn their swords, on the arrival and intervention of the Bards, the army immediately desists. Thus, even among the rude barbarians, wrath gives place to wisdom, and Mars to Muses."
According to the Dark Ages scholar Nennius, there were five major Welsh bards of the sixth century: Taliesin, Aneurin, Blwchfardd, Cian, and Talhaern Tad. Other sources say that Llywarch the Aged and Myrddin were also important bards of this period. In the next several centuries Morfran, Meugan, Arofan, and Afan Ferddig were notable Welsh bards. Taliesin and Aneurin are of particular interest because major works of Welsh literature are named after them. They might well be considered Celtic literary heroes.
Taliesin, as we described earlier, played a key role in the legend of Ceridwen, but there is more. In the myth, Taliesin becomes the bard for the court of Elphin, who gives him his name–Taliesin meaning "shining brow" (for a light shone from his face). When Elphin is captured by King Maelgwn of Gwynedd, in northern Wales, Taliesin appears at Maelgwn’s court and challenges his bards to a contest. Taliesin is eloquent, and through a mysterious power, he renders Maelgwn’s bards incapable of speech. Then by the magic of his words, Taliesin frees Elphin from his chains.
This, of course, is a mythical image of Taliesin. In reality, he was probably born in Powys, central Wales, and was the court bard of King Urien of Rheged, a region near the present southwestern Scotland and Cumbria. Perhaps a dozen of authentic poems of Taliesin still exist, all of them praise poems and elegies. His poems, according to one modern critic, have ambitious metric patterns, both internal and end rhyme, and alliteration, though not so obvious in English translations.
Taliesin’s poetry is considered more complex than much of the Anglo-Saxon poetry. Taliesin emphasizes the loss of a way of life with the coming of the Saxons invaders, and his poems "celebrate the gaiety of court life, the personal triumph and generosity of a royal patron, and the ties between poet and patron." In his old age, Taliesin is said to have returned to Wales to die, and legend has it that he is buried at Tre-Taliesin, a village named for him.
Aneurin was a north Briton of the sixth century, and an existing poem of his is considered by many to be the oldest piece of Welsh literature (the "Y Gododdin"). Aneurin was the court bard of the Manaw Gododdin people, whose Celtic king was Mynyddawg Mwynfawr. This was a realm near the southeastern borderlands of what is now Scotland and England. Aneurin is a Welsh bard in that he wrote in Cymraeg, what became the Welsh language.
The dilemma facing Aneurin’s people was the common problem of the day for most Briton Celts–the Saxons were encroaching on Celtic territories. In the Y Gododdin, Aneurin writes that the Saxons have taken over the old Roman town of Catterick (called Cattraeth in the poem), a key spot in neighboring Northumbria. So sometime around 600 A.D., King Mynyddawg assembles 300 Celtic warriors, and treats them to a feast at his court in Edinburgh. This is a preparatory meal before a great battle. The problem is that the Celtic warriors drink far too much mead and wine, and when they finally attack the Saxons at Cattraeth, they are not sound at battle and the Saxons easily defeat them. Only three of the Gododdin Celts survive: Aeron, Conan, and Aneurin himself.
To get a sense of what the longer poem sounds like, below is a short excerpt of Y Gododdin, as translated from the sixth century Welsh into English by Thomas Gray.
"Y Gododdin"
–by Aneurin, circa 600
"To Cattraeth’s vale, in glittering row,
Thrice one hundred warriors go;
Every warrior’s manly neck
Chains of regal honor deck,
Wreathed in many a golden link;
>From the golden cup they drink
Nectar that the bees produce,
Or the grape’s exalted juice.
Flushed with mirth and hope they burn,
But none from Cattraeth’s vale return,
Save Aeron brave, and Conan strong,
Bursting through the mighty throng,
And I, the meanest of them all,
That live to weep, and sing their fall."
(an excerpt)
The Celtic Arthur
King Arthur of Camelot is a personage who comes to our attention in three forms. First is the Arthur of Celtic myth, his shape that is least known. Here Arthur is described in the Welsh language, and is sometimes full of rustic flavor, and other times almost deified. Then there is the Arthur of popular myth, known to about every schoolboy. This image was created by Norman-English and French writers of medieval times, and is full of stories of the Table Round, Lancelot, and the Holy Grail. Finally there is the real Arthur, the historical person. Celtic expert Simon James describes the historical Arthur in this way: It is widely accepted that Arthur probably was a real person, but beyond that there is little agreement about who he was, what he did, or even where or when he lived. None of the early sources call him king. He is described as dux bellorum, "leader of battles," perhaps a successful supra-tribal war-leader in the spirit of Vercingetorix and Caratacus, leading the combined forces of British kingdoms against the invading Saxons. Variously seen as a Celtic war-chief, or a Romanized cavalry commander, Arthur could still also have been a petty king in his own right.
Nennius describes the twelve great battles that Arthur fought against the Saxons, culminating in the Battle of Mt. Badon, after which Saxon encroachments into Celtic territories were slowed for a generation. Some experts suggest that Mt. Badon was near the English city of Bath, and that the battle took place around the year 516. Although, understandably, the Anglo-Saxons were not enthused about Arthur, his fame spread in Celtic areas, including Brittany. These Breton minstrels introduced the stories of Arthur in Norman courts, who were then responsible for spreading these stories throughout Europe, and back to England with William of Conqueror and the Norman invasion in 1066.
In the early 1100s, Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his famous history of Britain, describing King Arthur as victor against the Saxons, the Scots, the Norsemen, the French, and finally the Romans. Although this was a lightly-taken fabrication, Geoffrey launched the European literary movement of viewing Arthur as a sort of medieval superstar, and the legends grew in grand fashion. King Arthur took his place in the popular imagination for centuries to come.
All the while this was happening, there were still the old Celtic myths of Arthur, known to relatively few, but cherished by those wishing to protect the memory of the original Celtic Arthur. Not that the mythic events were historically true, for often Arthur conquered realms that did not exist on the map. In the Welsh story, "The Spoiling of Annwn," Arthur leads an expedition to the Celtic underworld, and captures the magic cauldron of inspiration and poetry.
Some experts see this cauldron quest as the Celtic origin of the Holy Grail story. There are other Celtic origins of the popular Arthurian legends. For instance the sword Excalibur; this is a reminder of the Celtic magic swords in the myths of Nuada and Manannán, who also named their swords. Some experts suggest that Camelot had earlier versions, Squire thinking its origins were at Cadbury in Somerset, and Sidney Lanier reporting that it was in Winchester in south England. Many of the principal names in the popular Arthurian legends began as characters in the Welsh Arthur stories, such as, Lady Guinevere (originally Gwynhwyvar in Welsh), Merlin (Myrddin), Mordred (Medrawt), Sir Kay (Kai), Sir Bedivere (Bedwyr), and Sir Tristrem (Trystan).
One important story of the Celtic Arthur is called "The Dream of Rhonabwy." Here, a Welsh man-at-arms named Rhonabwy lies down upon a yellow calf-skin, and sleeps three days and three nights, having a most wonderful dream. In his dream, Rhonabwy and his companions are traveling toward the River Severn in Wales, and they meet the Celtic warrior Iddawc the Agitator. Iddawc gained his name because Arthur had sent him on a diplomatic mission to Medrawt with many fair sayings. But Iddawc loved war, and translated these messages into extremely harsh words, precipitating the Battle of Camlan. However, Iddawc had done seven year’s penance, and having been forgiven, was now traveling to Arthur’s camp. Iddawc insists that Rhonabwy and his companions come with him.
When they arrive, Arthur is conversing with Bedwini the Bishop of Gwarthegyd. Arthur casts his eye on Rhonabwy and comments on the latter’s small stature. But, Rhonabwy is told to be quiet and watch what is about to happen. It is an important day, for Arthur and his warriors are gathering to fight the Battle of Mt. Badon against the Saxons. Rhonabwy watches in amazement as each of Arthur’s champions and warriors rides by him. The dream, as portrayed by the unknown author of old, seems to be an effort to catalogue the most important of Arthur’s followers.
"Kulhwch and Olwen" and the Treasures of Britain
As in the popular Arthurian legends, Welsh myths often focus on a secondary character and then Arthur’s eminence emerges from the background. In the case of the story of "Kulhwch and Olwen," Arthur and his mighty men arise to win the day.
Kulhwch, according to the myth, was the son of a petty king who married a widow with a daughter. Kulhwch’s stepmother urged him to marry her daughter, and when he politely refused, the stepmother "laid a destiny" on him that he would marry a different maiden, the fair Olwen, or nobody at all.
Olwen was the most beautiful young woman of the realm, but her father was the wicked Hawthorn, the Chief of the Giants. Hawthorn was monstrous in size and shape, and he had enormous eyebrows, which were so heavy over his eyes, in order to see he needed forks to lift the eyebrows up. Hawthorn would allow no man to marry Olwen, because he had a premonition that he would die upon her marriage.
When Kulhwch asked for Olwen’s hand, Hawthorn commanded a bride’s price so high that the giant just knew that Kulhwch could never secure the demand. Hawthorn required that the man to marry Olwen provide him with the Thirteen Treasures of Britain. These treasures were the cornucopia of Gwysddneu, the magic chalice of Llwyr, the cauldron of Diwrnach the Gael, the sword of Gwrnach the Giant, the drinking horn of Gwlgawd Gododin, the harp of Teirtu, the tusk of White-tooth the Boar, the blood of the Black Sorceress, the preservative bottles of Gyddolwyn Gorr, and the milk bottles of Rhinnon Rhin Barnawd. The final three treasures would be the hardest to obtain: a comb, razor, and scissors which lay between the ears of Twrch Trwyth, a king who had been transformed by magic into the most fierce of wild boars.
With this, Kulhwch was in dismay and had no idea what to do, for these Treasures of Britain were virtually unobtainable. Kulhwch’s father then recommended that he seek the assistance of Arthur, for they were blood relatives. So Kulhwch traveled to the court of Arthur, who agreed to help in the quest for securing the Treasures of Britain. Arthur would be accompanied by his most able warriors–Kai, Bedwyr, Kynddelig, Gwrhyr, Gwalchmei, and Menw. And in this story, Arthur is assisted by warriors who were once viewed as Welsh gods–Mabon and Manawyddan.
As the story progresses, Arthur and his mighty men do great deeds to acquire each of the first ten of the treasures. What lay ahead would be the most difficult task of obtaining the comb, razor, and scissors from the boar Twrch Trwyth. The boar was now with seven young pigs in Ireland. Arthur and his men go there and fight Twrch Trwyth for nine days and nights, but not even one of the little pigs succumbs.
Twrch Trwyth then proclaims that he and his pigs will lay waste to Arthur’s country, and the eight pigs cross the sea to Wales. Arthur follows on his ship "Prydwen," and chases the boar and pigs throughout South Wales. One by one each of the little pigs are felled, and Arthur loses many of his company as well. Finally, Twrch Trwyth is alone at the estuary of the River Severn. He is in a awkward position and Arthur’s men are able to get the scissors and razor, but not the comb. The boar then escapes and travels to Cornwall. There Arthur is met with many troubles, but is eventually able to defeat Twrch Trwyth and obtain the comb.
Arthur now has all thirteen of the Treasures of Britain, and Kulhwch presents them to Hawthorn the Giant. Olwen would now be the bride of Kulhwch, and in his last words, Hawthorn says to the groom:
My daughter is yours, but you need not thank me for it, but Arthur, who has accomplished this."
The Red Dragon
We might wish to close this discussion of Welsh mythology with the legend of the Red Dragon. According to the myth, the White Dragon of the Saxons was attacking the land of the Celtic Britons. To meet the monster in battle was the Red Dragon of the Britain, a Celtic symbol. The two dragons fought in fierce fashion in the sky with mighty shrieks. But the mythic Lludd was able to capture the dragons, and he buried them in the Snowdon district of Wales. Five hundred years later, Merlin dug up the dragons, the fighting renewed, and the Red Dragon forced the White Dragon of the Saxons out of Britain. This myth might have been a form of wishful thinking among the Welsh in the early Dark Ages, as Saxons gained more and more of their territory.
The current Welsh flag and coat of arms feature prominently a red dragon against a background of white and green. In 1999, the Welsh gained a significant boost in their national identity as a Welsh parliament met for the first time in centuries. Although the Red Dragon will not likely drive the White Dragon out, one can easily bet that the Red Dragon of Britain is here to stay.
Copyright © 2001 jpparle@aol.com
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Go for Celtic Mythology, kids! The ancient heroes of the Celts were related to places on the land as well as the sea- so all requirements would be satisfied. The question I would ask is: Who rode across the sea in a chariot of sea-foam?
